Characteristics of the Heart

Characteristics of the Heart

Al-Tawhid

 

Understanding
the Uniqueness of the Qur'an 

 

 

---

Murtada Mutahhari

 

 

Translated from the Persian by Mahliqa Qara'i

 

 

Vol I No. 1-3 (Muharram - Rajab 1404 AH)

 

 

 

Contents

 

 

 

 

Approaches to the Understanding of the Qur'an 

1. Authentication 

2. Analytical Study 

3. Study of the Sources of Ideas 

The Three Distinguishing Characteristics of the Qur'an 

Conditions Necessary for the Study of the Qur'an 

Uniqueness of the Qur'an 

Is the Qur'an Understandable? 

Issues in an Analytical Study of the Qur'an 

How does the Qur'an Introduce Itself? 

The Language of the Qur'an 

The Qur'an's Addressees 

Conception of Reason in the Qur'an 

Evidence in Favour of the Authority of Reason 

1. The Qur'an's Emphasis on Rationalism 

2. References to the Law of Causality 

3. Rational Basis of Divine Commands 

4. Combating Deviations of Reason 

The Qur'anic Viewpoint Regarding the Sources of Error 

Qur'anic Outlook Regarding the "Heart" 

Definition of the Heart 

Characteristics of the Heart 

 

The study and knowledge of the Qur'an is essential for every learned person
as well as for all faithful believers. It is specially essential for those
scholars who are interested in the study of man and society, since this
book has been effectively instrumental not only in moulding the destinies
of Islamic societies, but also in shaping the destiny of the human race
as a whole. A brief glance over history would be enough to provide sufficient
proof of the claim that there has been no such book that has ever influenced
human societies to the magnitude of the Qur'an. It is for the same reason
that the Qur'an automatically steps into the precincts of sociological
discussions, and becomes the elemental constituent of the subjects of research
in this discipline. This means that any deep study and profound research
in the field of world history of the last fourteen hundred years, is impossible
without the knowledge of the Qur'an. 

 

The study of the Qur'an is essential for every committed Muslim, since
it is the main source and foundation of the religious thought and faith.
Whatsoever gives meaning, essence and sanctity to his existence lies in
the Holy Qur'an. 

The Qur'an is not just like other religious books which are content
to discuss the problems of existence of God and creation in cryptic tones,
or like those which merely convey a series of simple moral advice and counsels,
so that those who believe in them are hopelessly left to search for guidance
in other sources. Unlike such books the Qur'an formulates the tenets of
faith besides communicating the ideas and views that are essential for
a man of faith and belief. Similarly, it also lays down the principles
of moral and ethical values for the purpose of social and familial existence.
It leaves the job of explanation, interpretation, and occasionally that
of ijtihad and application of principles (usul) to secondary matters
(furu') to be dealt with through ijtihad and sunnah. Accordingly,
utilization of any other source depends on the prior knowledge of the Qur'an.
The Qur'an is the criterion and standard for judging all other sources.
We should judge hadith and sunnah in the light of the Qur'an. We can accept
it only when it is in accordance with the Qur'an, otherwise we do not accept
it. 

There are four more books that come after the Qur'an, and are regarded
as the most sacred and the most authentic sources (by the Shi'ah Muslims).
They are: Al-Kafi, Man la yahduruhu al-faqih, Tahdhib, and Istibsar. There
are also other sources like the Nahj al-Balaghah, and the prayers of al-Sahifah
al-Sajjadiyyah. All these books are secondary to the Qur'an, and their
authenticity of source is not so absolute as that of the Qur'an. A hadith
from al-Kafi is as trustworthy as it may be in conformity with the Qur'an,
and reliable so far as its words comply with the teachings of the Qur'an
and do not go against it. The Prophet (S) and the infallible Imams have
said that their traditions should be checked in the light of the Qur'an;
if they do not coincide with the words of the Qur'an, they should be regarded
as false and fake, and as being wrongfully attributed to them; since they
have not said anything that can go against the Qur'anic teachings. 

Approaches to the Understanding

of the Qur'an

Now that the necessity of understanding the Qur'an has been confirmed,
let us see what are the ways of understanding this book. Generally for
the purpose of a profound understanding of any book it is necessary to
study it in three ways: 

1. Authentication:

At this stage, we want to know to what extent the relationship of a book
with its author is authentic. Suppose we want to study the Diwan-Hafiz,
or the Ruba'iyyat of 'Umar Khayyam. At first, we have to see whether the
work which is attributed to Hafiz, wholly belongs to him, or whether a
part of it is Hafiz's work and the rest is an apocryphal annexation to
it. Similarly in the case of 'Umar Khayyam, and others too, we must judiciously
scrutinize their works. It is here that the matter of examination of manuscripts
--and for that matter the oldest of them-- becomes relevant. Thus we see
that none of these books can dispense with such a treatment. The Diwan-e-Hafiz
printed by the late Qazvini, which has been based on some of the most authentic
manuscripts of Hafiz's work, varies greatly from the ordinary editions
of Hafiz. printed in Iran and Bombay, which are usually found in homes.
The editions of Hafiz's works published during the last thirty or forty
years contain as much as twice the amount of Hafiz's original works. In
view of certain modern manuscript experts of repute, they are fake; although
we occasionally come across in them some verses which match the sublime
heights of Hafiz's poetry. Likewise when we study the quatrains attributed
to 'Umar Khayyam, we shall find nearly two hundred quatrains of the same
poetical standard with only minor differences usually possible even among
the authentic verses of a single poet. However, if we look back at the
history of Khayyam's times, we shall notice that the number of quatrains
attributed to him may perhaps be less than twenty. The authenticity of
the rest of them is either doubtful, or may with certainty be said to belong
to other poets. 

It means that the first step towards the research study of any book
is to see to what extent the book in our hands is authentic, whether all
the things recorded on its pages are genuine, or if only a part of it is
authentic. Moreover, what criteria and standards should be employed in
order to judge the authenticity and genuineness of authorship? By what
logic can the authenticity of any book be totally rejected or affirmed? 

The Qur'an is absolutely exempt from all such criteria that may be applicable
to all worldly books. It is regarded as the exclusively singular book since
the ancient times. No book of ancient days has remained above doubt to
such extent despite a long lapse of several hundred years. No one can ever
say about it that such and such a surah has a questionable authenticity
or such and such a verse that is present in such and such a manuscript
is missing from another manuscript. The Qur'an stands above the notions
of manuscript reading. There is no place for the slightest doubt that all
of the verses that exist in the Qur'an are those conveyed to Muhammad ibn
'Abd Allah (S) who communicated them as the miraculous Word of God. Nobody
can ever claim that another version of the Qur'an existed anywhere, or
still exists. There has not been any Orientalist either who would begin
the study of the Qur'an by saying, "let us trace from the earliest of the
manuscripts of the Qur'an to see what was included in it and what was not."
The Qur'an is absolutely free from this kind of investigation necessary
in case of such books as the Bible, the Torah, or the Avesta, or the Shahnameh
of Ferdowsi, or the Gulistan of Sa'di and every other ancient or not so
ancient work. 

Only for the study of the Qur'an no such questions arise, and the Qur'an
is far above the usual norms of authenticity and the craft of manuscript
reading. Moreover, besides the fact that the Qur'an is one of the heavenly
scriptures and has been regarded by its followers as the most basic and
authentic proof of the Prophet's (S) claim to prophethood, and as the greatest
of his miracles, the Qur'an, unlike the Torah, was not revealed at one
time and was not subject to later difficulties in distinguishing the true
manuscript. The verses of the Qur'an were revealed gradually during a span
of twenty-three years. From the very first day, the eager Muslims memorized
its verses, preserved and recorded them. Those were the days when the Muslim
society was quite a simple society. No other book existed besides the Qur'an,
and the Muslims were inevitably inclined to memorize its verses. Their
clear, unmarked minds and their powerful memory, their general ignorance
about reading and writing, all these factors assisted them in acquiring
and retaining their information regarding the Qur'an. This is the reason
why the message of the Qur'an, which was so congenial to their sensibilities
and their natural propensities, got effectively imprinted on their hearts
like inscription on stone. Since they believed it to be the Word of God,
it was sacred to them also. They couldn't permit themselves that a single
word or even a letter of it be altered or replaced in its text. They tried
to acquire the nearness to God by reciting its verses. It should be noted
here that from the very early days the Prophet (S) had engaged a group
of scribes for the purpose of writing down the Qur'an, who were known as
the "Scribes of the Revelation." This should be regarded as one of the
merits in favour of the Qur'an from which all other ancient books are excluded.
The absence of any alteration and change in the Word of God was on account
of this process of writing and recording from the very beginning. 

The other reason responsible for the popularity of the Qur'an among
the people was its extraordinary, supernatural literary and artistic dimension
depicted in its rhetoric and eloquence. It was this strong literary attraction
towards the Qur'an, which had an appeal for the people, that prompted them
to immediately memorize its verses. But unlike other literary works like
the Diwan-e-Hafiz and poems of Rumi, which are exposed to meddling by admirers
who think they are improving on the original, nobody could ever give himself
the permission of meddling with the sacred text; for the Qur'an immediately
declared in one of its verses: 

Had he [the Prophet (S)] invented against Us any sayings,
We would have seized him by the right hand, then We would surely have cut
his life vein. (69:44-46) 

There are several other verses in the Qur'an that forbid forgery in relation
to the Word of God. The gravity of this sin as stressed by the Qur'an had
profound impression upon minds and served as a severe discouragement in
this regard. In this way, before any type of alterations could have taken
place in its verses, they were repeated often, thus reaching a stage that
it was impossible to increase, diminish or alter even a single word in
this heavenly book. Accordingly, there is neither any need of any discussion
about the Qur'an from the point of view of authenticity, nor does any scholar
of the Qur'an throughout the world see any necessity of such a discussion.
However, I think, it is necessary to remind the readers about the fact
that, because of the rapid expansion of the Islamic domain and distance
of the major part of the population living far away from Medina, which
was the center of huffaz (those who memorized) of the Qur'an and
the Companions of the Prophet, there arose the danger of occurrence of
advertent or wilful gradual alteration in the Qur'anic text. But the prompt
dexterity and timely awareness on the part of early Muslims averted this
danger. Within the first five decades, they utilized the services of the
Sahabah (the Companions of the Prophet) and those of the huffaz
of the Qur'an for the purpose of averting the chances of conscious or inadvertent
alterations in the text of the Qur'an. They distributed approved copies
of the Qur'an from Medina to the surrounding regions. They thus checked
any chances of wrongdoing, especially on the part of the Jews, who are
well-known champions in this field. 

2. Analytical Study:

During this stage of study and analysis of a book, it is essential to understand
these things: the subject it deals with, the goal that it pursues, its
outlook regarding the world, its point of view concerning man and society,
its style and treatment of the subject-whether the treatment of the subject
is in an intellectual and scholarly manner, or whether it has its own characteristic
style. One more question that is relevant in this context is whether this
book contains any message and guidance for humanity or not. If the answer
to this question is in the affirmative, then what is the message that it
conveys? The first group of questions are, of course, concerned with the
point of view and outlook of the book regarding man and universe, about
life and death etc. In other words, these questions are associated with
the, world-outlook of the book, and in terms of Islamic philosophy, with
its al-hikmat al-nazariyyah (theoretical wisdom). But the second
group of questions is concerned with the perspective of future of mankind
offered by the book. They deal with the suggested basis for moulding the
human kind and human societies. This aspect may be regarded as the "message"
of the book. 

This sort of understanding is, however, concerned with the subject of
the book, and is relevant in regard to all kinds of books, whether it is
the medical treatise of Ibn Sina, or if it is the Gulistan of Sa'di. It
is possible that a book may lack an outlook as well as a message, or it
may contain an outlook but not a message, or it may contain both. 

Regarding the analytical study of the Qur'an we shall have to see, in
general, what sort of problems does the Qur'an deal with, and what is its
manner of presenting them. What is its manner of argument and its approach
to various problems? Does the Qur'an, being the defender, presenter and
protector of faith, and its message being a religious message, view reason
as a rival to its teachings, and clings to a defensive posture against
it, or whether it considers reason as a supporter and protector of faith
and relies upon its power? These questions and various other queries, arise
during the analytical study of the Qur'an. 

3. Study of the Sources of Ideas:

At this stage, i.e. after verification of authenticity of the authorship
of a book, and after thorough study and analysis of its contents, we come
to the stage of exploring whether the contents of the book comprise of
its author's own original ideas, or, the ideas have been borrowed from
some other source. For instance, in studying Hafiz's works, after verifying
the authenticity of the verses and making their analytical study, we have
to see whether these themes, ideas and thoughts that have been incorporated
into Hafiz's poetry and poured into the moulds of his words, phrases, couplets,
language and style, are actually the creations of Hafiz, or whether only
the words and phrases and the beauty, art and craftsmanship reflected in
the verses come from Hafiz, whereas the thoughts and ideas belong to someone
else, or have been borrowed from another source. After ascertaining his
artistic originality, the intellectual originality of Hafiz's works has
also to be established. 

This kind of study regarding Hafiz, or any other author, implies the
study of the source and roots of the author's ideas and thought. This sort
of study is secondary to an analytical study; that is, firstly the contents
of the author's thought should be completely understood, and afterwards
an attempt should be made to identify its roots and sources. Otherwise,
the result of one's effort will be something like the works of certain
writers of history of various sciences, who write without any thorough
knowledge of the subject, or similar to the works of those writers of philosophical
books, who undertake, for instance, a comparative study of Ibn Sina and
Aristotle, without any knowledge of either. After superficial comparison
and on discovering some literal similitudes between the works of the two
great thinkers, they immediately sit down to pass a quick judgment. Although,
for the purpose of a comparative study, very deep and profound knowledge
of the ideas and thoughts of both of the philosophers is required. A lifetime
of study is necessary for such a task; otherwise, it has no more value
than can be given to blind imitative conjectures. 

For the study and understanding of the Qur'an, an analytical study must
be followed by a comparative and historical study. That is, the contents
of the Qur'an should be compared with other books that existed at that
time, specially the religious ones. For the purpose of such a comparison,
it is essential to keep in mind the conditions and relations of the Arabian
peninsula with other parts of the world, and the number of educated Arabs
living in Mecca at the time. Only then we can arrive at an estimation of
the influence of other books of those times on the contents of the Qur'an,
and if we find something common in them, discover its proportions. We can
then see whether the material that has been borrowed from other books is
used in an original manner or not. Does the Qur'an go even further to the
extent of playing a role in amending the contents of those books and setting
right the errors occurring in them? 

The Three Distinguishing

Characteristics of the Qur'an

Our study of the Qur'an acquaints us with three distinguishing characteristics
of this holy book. The first distinguishing characteristic is the absolute
authenticity of its source. That is, without the slightest need of any
comparison between the oldest manuscripts, it is evident that what we recite
as the verses of the Holy Qur'an, are exactly the same words presented
before the world by Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (S). The second characteristic
feature of the Qur'an is the quality of its contents: its teachings are
genuinely original and have not been adopted or plagiarized. It is the
duty of an analytical study to prove this fact. The third characteristic
of the Qur'an is its Divine identity: its teachings have been delivered
to the Prophet from a world that transcends his thought and mind. The Prophet
(S) was only a recipient of this revelation and message. This is the result
that we obtain from the study of the sources and roots of the Qur'an. 

But the study of the sources of the Qur'an, and confirmation of its
originality, depend upon the analytical study. So I resolve to open this
discussion with the analytical study of the Qur'an. We shall first see
what is the subject matter of the Qur'an, what kind of problems are discussed
in it, what type of problems have been given priority, and in what manner
those subjects are presented in it. If we are successful in our critical
analysis, and acquire a sufficient understanding of the Qur'anic teachings,
it will bring us to an acknowledgment of its principal aspect, which is
the Divine aspect of the Qur'an, the quality of its being a Divine miracle. 

Conditions Necessary for the Study of the Qur'an

The understanding of the Qur'an requires certain preliminaries which are
briefly described here. The first essential condition necessary for the
study of the Qur'an, is the knowledge of the Arabic language, such as for
the understanding of Hafiz and Sa'di, it is impossible to get anywhere
without the knowledge of the Persian language. In the same way, to acquaint
oneself with the Qur'an without knowing the Arabic language is impossible.
The other essential condition is the knowledge of the history of Islam;
since, unlike the Bible and the Torah, this book was revealed gradually
during a long period of twenty-three years of the Prophet's life, a tumultuous
time in the history of Islam. It is on this account that every verse of
the Qur'an is related to certain specific historical incident called sha'n-i
nuzul The sha'n-i nuzul, by itself does not restrict the meaning of the
verses, but the knowledge of the particulars of revelation throws more
light on the subject of the verses in an effective way. 

The third condition essential for the understanding of the Qur'an, is
the correct knowledge of the sayings of the Prophet (S). He was, according
to the Qur'an itself, the interpreter of the Qur'an par excellence. The
Qur'an says: 

We have revealed to you the Reminder that you may make clear
to men what has been revealed to them ... (16:44) 

The Qur'an also says: 

It is He who has sent among the illiterate a Messenger from
among them, to recite His sings to them, and to purify them and to teach
them the Book and the Wisdom. (62:2) 

According to the Qur'an, the Prophet (S) himself is the exegetist and the
interpreter of the Qur'anic text. Whatever has reached us from the Prophet,
is of great help in our understanding of the Qur'an. For the Shi'ah, who
believe in the infallible Imams (A) also, and believe that the Prophet
(S) has transmitted everything he obtained from God to his spiritual successors
(awliya'), those genuine riwayat (narrations about the Prophet (S)) that
have reached us through the Imams, possess the same degree of authenticity
as those obtained directly from the Prophet (S). Accordingly, the authentic
riwayat of the Imams are of great help to us in our understanding of the
Qur'an. 

A very important point to remember during the initial stages of study,
is that we should try to understand the Qur'an with the help of the Qur'an
itself; because, the verses of the Qur'an constitute a completely united
integral whole, a coherent unified structure. If we single out any verse
from the Qur'an and try to understand it in isolation from the rest of
the Book, it would not be a correct method. However, it is possible that
we may happen to understand it, but the method is not recommended by caution,
as certain verses of the Qur'an are explanatory for certain other verses.
All great commentators of the Qur'an have affirmed this method; the infallible
Imams also had approved of this manner of interpretation of the Qur'anic
verses. The Qur'an has its own specific mode of discussing various problems.
There are instances where if a solitary verse is studied without placing
it in its proper context, it gives quite a different sense than when it
is seen under the light of the verses dealing with a similar subject. 

For instance, the specific mode and style of the Qur'an may be noticed
from the distinction drawn between al-ayat al-muhkamat (the firm verses)
and al-ayat al-mutashabihat (the ambiguous verses). There is a prevalent
view regarding the muhkamat and the mutashabihat. Some people imagine that
al-ayat al-muhkamat are such verses as whose meaning is quite simple and
clear, whereas the meaning of al-ayat al-mutashabihat is cryptic, enigmatic
and puzzling. According to this notion, men are only permitted to cogitate
upon the meaning of al-ayat al-muhkamat, and al-ayat al-mutashabihat are
basically inscrutable and beyond their understanding. Here, the question
arises, what is the philosophy underlying al-ayat al-mutashabihat? Why
has the Qur'an put forward such verses that are incomprehensible? A brief
answer to this question is that neither muhkam means "simple" and "clear",
nor mutashabih means "ambiguous", "cryptic" and "enigmatic." "Ambiguous"
and "enigmatic" are adjectives applicable to sentences that do not convey
the meaning in a direct and simple manner, as are sometimes met in the
writings of various authors. For example, when Sultan Mahmud rewarded the
poetic efforts of Ferdowsi with a reward of an insignificant and humiliating
amount of money, Ferdowsi did not accept it, and instead he accused Sultan
Mahmud of the trait of parsimony in his versified lampoons. Some of them
were quite clear and obvious whereas the others were not devoid of ambiguity
and a lot of enigma. Ferdowsi is quite direct when he says: 

Had the king's mother been an honourable lady,  

He would have rewarded me with knee-high gold and silver. 

However, when he remarks: 

The palm of king Mahmud, the conqueror of lands,  

Was nine times nine and three times four, 

what does he intend to say? Here Ferdowsi has made use of an enigmatic
technique. Those who are interested would like to know the solution: 9
X 9=81, 3 X 4=12, and 81 plus 12 add up to 93. Ferdowsi says, the Sultan's
palm was just like 93. It means that the fist of the Sultan was so tightly
closed that only his thumb was free, and this thumb along with the index
finger (which acquires the shape of 92 and other three fingers make 93.
Through this obscure statement Ferdowsi wants to emphatically report the
miserliness of the Sultan. 

We shall see whether there are actually any enigmatic and abstruse verses
in the Qur'an. Such an assumption contradicts with the text of the Qur'an
which unequivocally states that it is a clear and comprehensible book whose
verses provide guidance and shed light. The core of the problem is that
some of the issues dealt with in the Qur'an are related to metaphysical
matters and the transcendental world, which cannot be expressed in ordinary
language. In the words of Shaykh Shabistari: 

The word fails to encompass meaning,  

The ocean cannot be poured into a pot. 

Since the language of the Qur'an is the same as used by men, inevitably,
the same diction is used for the most sublime and spiritual themes as we
human beings use for earthly subjects. But in order to prevent any misunderstanding
about certain problems, some verses have been devised in such a way that
they need to be explained with the help of other verses. There is no way
except this. For example, the Qur'an wanted to point out to a truth namely,
seeing God through the heart; that is, to witness the presence of God by
means of one's heart. This idea has been expressed in the following terms: 

(Some) faces on the Day shall be bright, looking towards
their Lord. (75:22-23)

Uniqueness of the Qur'an

The Qur'an makes use of the verb "looking," and no other word more suitable
could be available for the expression of the desired sense. But to avert
the possibility of any doubt, the Qur'an explains in other place: 

Vision perceives Him not, and He perceives all vision. (6:104) 

The second verse makes the reader distinguish between two different meanings
conveyed by the same word. In order to avoid any possibility of ambiguity
in its exalted themes, the Qur'an asks us to check the mutashabihat against
the mahkamat: 

He sent down upon thee the Book, wherein are verses firm
(ayat mahkamat) that are the essence of the Book. (3:6)

Thereby, the Qur'an means that there are certain verses whose firmness
cannot be denied and other meanings cannot be derived from them, except
their real ones. Such verses are the 'mother' of the Book (umm al-kitab).
In the same way as a mother is the refuge to her child, or a cosmopolitan
city (umm al-qura) is the center of small cities, al-ayat al-muhkamat are
also regarded as the axes of the mutashabihat. Al-ayat al-mutashabihat
are, of course, to be cogitated upon and understood, but they are to be
pondered upon with the help of al-ayat al-muhkamat. Any inference drawn
without the help of the mother-verses would not be correct and reliable. 

Is the Qur'an Understandable?

During the analysis and study of the Qur'an, the first question that arises
is whether the Qur'an can be studied and understood. Has this book been
introduced for the purpose of studying and understanding it, or whether
it is just for reading and reciting and obtaining reward and blessing?
The reader, possibly, may wonder at raising of such a question. To him
it may appear beyond doubt that the Qur'an is meant for the purpose of
knowing and understanding it. Nevertheless, in view of various undesirable
currents, which due to numerous reasons came into existence in the Muslim
world regarding the question of understanding of the Qur'an, and which
had an important role in bringing about the decline of Muslims, we shall
discuss this matter in brief. Regrettably, the roots of those degenerate
and dangerous notions still persist in our societies. So I consider it
necessary to elaborate on this topic. 

Among the Shi'ah scholars of three or four centuries ago, there appeared
a group which believed that the Qur'an is not a hujjah ("proof", meaning
a legal source usable for vindication). Among the four sources of fiqh
that have been regarded as the criteria and standard for the understanding
of the Islamic problems by Muslim scholars, i.e. the Qur'an, the sunnah
(tradition), 'aql (reason) and ijma' (consensus of opinion),
they did not recognize three of them. Regarding ijma', they said
that it belongs to the Sunni tradition and they could not follow it. Concerning
reason, they maintained that reason can also err, and reliance on reason
is not legitimate. About the Qur'an they respectfully asserted that the
Qur'an is greater in station than being subject to study and comprehension
by us humble human creatures. It is only the privilege of the Prophet and
the Imams to ponder over the verses of the Holy Qur'an. We ordinary human
beings have only the right to read and recite them. This group was that
of the Akhbariyun or Akhbaris. 

The Akhbaris regarded hadith and chronicles as the only permissible
sources of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). One may be astounded to
learn that in some of the Qur'anic exegeses written by these people, they
mentioned only those verses about which the tradition existed, and refrained
from mentioning other verses as if they are not a part of the Qur'an. 

Such a kind of practice was an injustice to the Qur'an. This shows that
a society that could neglect and alienate their own heavenly book and that
too of the standard and stature of the Qur'an, is not at all up to the
Qur'anic standards. Besides the Akhbaris there were other groups who also
regarded the Qur'an as inaccessible to the ordinary human intellect. Among
them the Ash'arites can be named, who believed that the knowledge of the
Qur'an does not necessarily mean that its verses should be pondered over,
but the real meanings are the same as that the words literally communicate.
According to them, whatever we understand from the outward meaning, we
have to be satisfied with it. We should not be concerned with the secret
and inner meanings. It was quite natural that this sort of thinking regarding
the Qur'an, very rapidly, gave rise to serious deviations and grave misunderstandings.
Since they were forced on the one hand to the task of interpretation of
the meaning of the Qur'anic verses, and, on the other hand, banished reason
also from the realm of religious learning, as a result, they were forced
to adopt merely vulgar and superficial interpretations of the Qur'anic
verses. On account of their faulty way of thinking, they deviated from
the regular course of correct thinking, and thus gave way to distorted
and faulty religious vision. As the result of this type of religious thinking,
heretical beliefs like the personification of God the Almighty, and numerous
other distorted ideas like the possibility of visual perception of God,
His possession of physical characteristics etc., came into existence. 

Opposing the group which abandoned the Qur'an, another group came into
existence which used the Qur'an as the means to fulfill their selfish aims.
They gave the Qur'anic verses such interpretations as were favourable to
their selfish interests, and wrongfully attributed certain ideas to the
Qur'anic text that were not at all in agreement with the spirit of the
Qur'an. In answer to every objection that was made against them, they said
that none except themselves could understand the esoteric and secret meaning
of the Qur'anic verses, and whatever they stated was based on the understanding
and knowledge of the esoteric meaning of the verses. 

The champions of this movement in the history of Islam consist of two
groups: the first group are the Isma'ilis, who are also known as the Batinis
(secret sect), and the other are the Sufis. Most of the Isma'ilis are found
in India and some of them are in Iran. They had formed an empire in Egypt
known as the Fatimid caliphate. The Isma'ilis are so-called Shi'ahs who
believe in six Imams. But all the Twelver Imami Shi'ah scholars are unanimous
in the opinion that in spite of their belief in six Imams, the Isma'ilis
stand at a greater distance from the Shi'ite faith than the non-Shi'ite
sects. The Sunnis, who do not believe in any of the Imams in the same sense
as the Shi'ah do, nevertheless are nearer to the Shi'ah than these "Six-Imami
Shi'ahs." The Isma'ilis, on account of their batini beliefs and secretive
practices have played a treacherous role in the history of Islam and have
had a big hand in causing serious deviations in the realm of Islam. 

Besides the Isma'ilis, the Sufis are also charged with distortion of
the Qur'anic verses and had a long hand in interpreting them according
to their personal beliefs. Here I present a specimen of their exegesis
so that the extent and method of their misinterpretation may be known: 

The anecdote of Ibrahim (A) and his son Isma'il is described by the
Qur'an as follows: It occurred to Ibrahim (A) in his dream that he has
to sacrifice his son for the sake of God. At first he is perplexed regarding
such an instruction; but as he repeatedly has the dream reiterating the
same theme, he becomes certain of the Will of God and decides to obey the
Divine command. He puts the whole matter before his son, who also faithfully
accepts his father's proposal of executing the Divine command: 

"My son, I see in a dream that I shall sacrifice thee; consider
what thinkest thou?" He said, "My father, do as thou art bidden; thou shalt
find me, God willing, one of the steadfast." (37:102) 

Here the aim is the expression of total submission and resignation towards
the Divine decree. For the same reason the father and son are ready to
execute the Divine command with whole-hearted purity and sincerity, but
the execution of the command was stopped by the Will of God. But the same
incident is interpreted by the Sufis in this fashion: Ibrahim here represents
intellect and reason ('aql) and Isma'il represents the self (nafs); the
Qur'anic anecdote is an allegory that hints at the attempt of reason to
murder the human self (nafs). 

It is obvious that such interpretation of the Qur'an is like wanton
treatment of it, and presents a distorted perspective of its teachings.
It is in the context of such deviate interpretations of the Qur'an based
upon personal or sectarian bias and interests that the Prophet has said:
One who interprets the Qur'an according to his wish, should be certain
of his place in hell. 

This kind of frivolous attitude towards the verses of the Qur'an amounts
to the betrayal of the Qur'an and that too of a grievous degree. The Qur'an
itself strikes a middle course between the stagnant and narrow-minded attitude
of the Akhbaris and the unwarranted and deviate interpretations of the
Batinis. It recommends a course of sincere, disinterested study and asks
for unbiased and unprejudiced meditation over its meanings. Not only the
believers and the faithful, but even the infidels are invited by it to
contemplate over its verses. The Qur'an demands that it verses should be
first contemplated over, before forming any adverse opinion against them.
Addressing the opponents, it says, why they don't ponder over the Qur'an,
what sort of hearts they possess, they are as if shut close and sealed: 

What, do they not ponder the Qur'an? Or is it that there
are locks upon their hearts? (47:24) 

The Qur'an also says in one of its verses: 

(This is) a Book We have revealed to you abounding in good,
that they may ponder the verses. 

That is, We have not sent the Qur'an to be kissed, embraced and put on
the niche to gather dust, but for men to read and to contemplate about
its contents: 

That those endowed with understanding may ponder its signs
and so remember. (38:29) 

The above verse and scores of other such verses emphasize the importance
of contemplation in the Qur'an and interpretation of the Qur'anic verses,
although not an interpretation based on personal caprices and bias, but
a just, truthful and balanced interpretation free of all traces of selfish
interests. If we try to comprehend the Qur'an in an honest and unbiased
way, it is not at all necessary to solve all problems that we find in it.
In this regard the Qur'an is similar to Nature. In Nature, too, a number
of mysteries have neither been solved yet, nor can they be solved in present
conditions, yet are likely to be solved in the future. Moreover, in studying
and understanding nature, man has to tailor his ideas in accordance with
Nature itself. He is forced to interpret Nature in accordance with its
reality. He cannot define Nature in terms of his own caprices and inclinations.
The Qur'an, like the book of Nature, is a book that has not been sent for
a specific age and time. Had it been otherwise, all the secrets of the
Qur'an would have been discovered in the past; this heavenly Book would
not have presented its charm, freshness and vitality. But we see that the
possibility of contemplation, reflection and discovery of new dimensions
is inexhaustible in the case of this Holy Book. This is a point that has
amply been emphasized and clarified by the Prophet and the Imams. In a
tradition, it is related from the Prophet (S) that the Qur'an, like the
sun and the moon, will present its movement and continuity; that is, the
Qur'an is not static or monotonous. In some other place the Prophet has
said that outwardly the Qur'an is beautiful and inwardly it is deep and
unfathomable. In 'Uyun akhbar al-Rida, from the Imam al-Rida (A), it is
quoted that Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (A) was asked about the secret of it that
as the time passes and the more it is read and recited, the Qur'an increases
in its novelty and freshness day by day. The Imam al-Sadiq (A) answered: 

Because the Qur'an is not for an exclusive age or for an
exclusive people. 

The Qur'an has been sent for all ages and for all human beings. It is so
composed that in spite of changes in knowledge, outlook and approach through
various times and ages, it surpasses all learning and knowledge in all
ages. While it encompasses mysteries and abstruse intricacies for the reader
of every age, at the same time it presents a great feast of meanings and
ideas that can satiate the needs of every time in accordance with the capacity
of that particular age. 

Issues in an Analytical Study of the Qur'an:

Now we shall proceed to study the contents of the Qur'an from an analytic
viewpoint. Of course, if we were to deal with every subject of the Qur'an
separately, it would call for --as Rumi would say-- seventy tons of paper.
So we will confine our discussion mainly to general and then a few particular
issues. 

The Qur'an has dealt with a vast range of subjects, and in this process,
it is more concerned with certain subjects and less with others. The universe
and its Creator are among the most recurring themes of the Qur'an. We must
try to see how it treats this theme. Is its outlook philosophical or gnostic?
Is its treatment similar to that of other religious books like the Bible
and the Torah? Is it similar to that of the religious books of Hinduism?
Does it deal with this problem in its own independent manner? 

The other problem that is repeatedly treated by the Qur'an is the problem
of the universe or the world of creation. We must examine the outlook of
the Qur'an about the universe. Does it regard the universe and all creation
to be an exercise in vanity and futility or does it regard it as being
based on coherent truth? Does it consider the state of affairs in the universe
as being based upon a series of laws and principles, or does it regard
it as a chaotic phenomenon in which nothing is the cause or condition of
any other thing? Among the general issues dealt by the Qur'an is the problem
of the human being. The Qur'anic outlook regarding the human being must
be analyzed. Does the Qur'an possess an optimistic outlook of man? Does
it speak of him in pessimistic and negative terms? Does the Qur'an consider
man as a despicable creature, or does it acknowledge his nobility and dignity? 

The other problem dealt with in the Qur'an is the problem of human society.
We have to see if the Qur'an considers the society to be primary and the
individual as secondary or whether it subordinates the society to the individual.
Are societies, according to the Qur'an, subject to laws governing their
life and death, their rise and decline, or are these conditions applicable
to individuals alone? In the same way, its conception of history also needs
to be clarified. What is the Qur'anic view regarding history? What are
the forces that control the dynamics of history? To what extent can an
individual's influence affect the course of history in the view of the
Qur'an? 

The Qur'an deals with numerous other issues. I shall enumerate some
of them here. One of them is the point of view of the Qur'an about itself.
The other issue is related to the Prophet (S) and its manner of introducing
and addressing him. Another issue is its definition of a believer (mu'min)
and his characteristics and so on. 

Furthermore, each of these general issues possesses various branches
and divisions. For example, when discussing mankind and its situation,
it is natural to speak about morality. Or, when speaking about society,
the problem of human relationships also unavoidably enters the discussion.
The same is true of such notions as "enjoining good and forbidding evil,"
and the problem of social classes. 

How does the Qur'an Introduce Itself?

For the purpose of analysing Qur'anic themes, it is better to start by
examining the opinion of the Qur'an about itself and its manner of self-introduction.
The first and foremost thing that the Qur'an pronounces about itself is
that all of its words, phrases and sentences are the Word of God. It makes
clear that the Prophet (S) was not its author; rather the Prophet only
related whatever was revealed to him through the agency of the Ruh al-Qudus
(Gabriel) with the permission of God. 

The Qur'an describes its other function as the presentation of the Prophetic
mission, which is aimed at guidance of humanity, by delivering it from
darkness and leading it towards light: 

A Book We have sent down to thee that thou mayest bring
forth mankind from the darkness into the light... (14:1) 

Without doubt the darkness of ignorance is one of the vices from which
the Qur'an emancipates humanity and leads it towards the light of knowledge
and wisdom. However, if merely ignorance were regarded as darkness, then
the philosophers could have accomplished this job. But there exist other
evils more dangerous than the vice of ignorance, and to subdue them is
beyond the power of sheer knowledge. Among them are the vices of worship
of material benefits, egoism, enslavement to desires, and greed, which
are considered to be personal and moral vices. Social vices like oppression
and discrimination manifest the spiritual darkness of a society. In Arabic,
the word zulm (injustice and oppression) is derived from the same root
as zulmah (darkness), which shows that injustice is a form of social and
spiritual darkness. To struggle against such forms of darkness is the responsibility
and mission of the Qur'an and other heavenly books. Addressing Prophet
Moses (A), the Qur'an says: 

That thou mayest bring forth your people from the darkness
into the light ... (14:5) 

This darkness, this shadow, is the darkness of Pharaoh's oppression and
injustice and that of his clique. The light is the light of justice and
freedom. 

The exegetists of the Qur'an emphasize the point that whenever the Qur'an
mentions darkness, it always uses it in the plural form although it always
uses light in its singular form. This means that the word, (darkness) includes
all sorts of darkness, all of the evil ways that lead towards darkness,
and that (light) signifies one single right path --the path of righteousness,
whereas the ways of deviation and perversion are many. In Suurat al-Baqarah,
the Qur'an says: 

God is the Protector of the believers; He brings them forth
from the darkness into the light. And the unbelievers --their protectors
are taghut, that bring them forth from the light into the darkness ...
(2:257) 

The Qur'an determines its goal to be the breaking of the chains of ignorance,
misguidance, moral and social corruption and destruction, or in other words,
to dissipate all sorts of (darkness) and to guide humanity in the direction
of justice, goodness and light. 

The Language of the Qur'an

The other issue is that of gaining familiarity with the language of the
Qur'an and the recitation of it. There are some people who think that the
Qur'an is to be read merely for the purpose of obtaining spiritual reward
(thawab) without need of understanding anything of its contents. They continuously
recite the Qur'an, but if they are even once asked) "Do you understand
the meaning of what you are reading?" they cannot answer. To recite the
Qur'an is essential and good, being regarded as the first step necessary
for comprehending its contents; and not merely as a means for gaining Divine
reward. 

The comprehension of the meaning of the Qur'an has certain peculiarities
to which due attention must be paid. While other books are read for the
purpose of acquiring the knowledge of novel ideas that merely involve reason
and the rational faculties of the reader's mind, the Qur'an must be studied
with the intention of educating oneself. The Qur'an itself clarifies this
point: 

A book We have sent down to thee, blessed, that men possessed
of mind may ponder its signs end so remember. (38:29) 

One of the functions of the Qur'an is to instruct and to teach. For this
purpose, the Qur'an addresses human reason and speaks in logical and demonstrative
terms. There is also another language that the Qur'an makes use of. But
this language is not used to appeal to the faculty of reason, but to the
heart. This is the language of feeling. Whosoever wants to acquaint himself
with the Qur'an, should be familiar with both of the languages and be able
to make use of both of them simultaneously. It is a grave mistake to separate
one from the other. 

That which is termed here as the heart, is the great source of profound
feeling that resides within all human beings. This is sometimes also called
"the sense of being", i.e. the feeling of relationship between human existence
and the Absolute Being. 

One who knows the language of the heart, when he addresses the human
being in this language, can move the inner depths of his being. It is not
merely the mind and the intellect alone which is affected, but his whole
being, which is profoundly influenced. This sort of influence can perhaps
be illustrated by the example of music. The various forms of music share
the common quality which is stimulation of human feelings. Music appeals
to the human soul and immerses it into a specific world of feeling. The
nature of feelings, excited by different kinds of music, of course, varies.
Certain types of music may be associated with the passions of valour and
bravery. In the past, on the battlefield, the effects of martial music
were evident. Sometimes its effects were so strong that the frightened
soldiers who would not dare come out of their bunkers, were made to march
in fervour despite fierce attacks from enemy's ranks. It is possible that
certain other kinds of music may excite sensual feelings and invite the
listener to succumb to sensual vices. The results of such music are noticeable
in the moral waywardness of our own times. Perhaps no other thing could
have so effectively broken down the walls of morality and chastity to the
extent of this kind of music. Other kinds of instinctive feelings and passions,
whether aroused by means of music or by some other means, can be controlled
when addressed in the language that appeals to them. 

One of the most sublime instincts and emotions present in all human
beings is the urge for religion and the natural quest for God. It is in
the same heavenly echoes that the Qur'an speaks to the Divine instincts
of mankind. The Qur'an itself recommends that its verses be recited in
fine and beautiful rhythms; for it is in those heavenly rhythms that it
speaks to the Divine nature of man. The Qur'an, describing itself, maintains
that it speaks in two languages. Sometimes it introduces itself as the
Book of meditation, logic and demonstration; at other times as the Book
of feeling and love. In other words, it does not merely seek to nourish
the intellect and thought, but also nurtures the human soul. 

The Qur'an lays great emphasis on its own specific quality of music,
a music which more than any other music, is effective in arousing the profound
and sublime feelings of the human heart. The Qur'an directs the believers
to devote a few hours of the night to reciting its verses, and to recite
them during their ritual prayers when their attention is turned towards
God. Addressing the Prophet, the Qur'an says: 

O thou enwrapped in thy robes, keep vigil the night, except
a little (a half of it, or diminish a little, or add a little) and chant
the Qur'an very distinctly. (73:1 -4) 

It asks the Prophet (S) to recite the Qur'an while standing for the prayers.
Tartiil means to recite neither too hastily that words cannot be distinguished,
nor too slowly that their connection be lost. It commands the Prophet (S)
to recite its verses rhythmically, and at the same time to cogitate upon
their meaning. Again, in a later verse of the same surah, the Prophet is
reminded that he needs enough sleep to effectively perform the daily chores
of business or jihad in the path of God; nevertheless, he should not forget
to seclude himself for worship. 

It were the same rhythms of the Qur'an that became the singular source
of spiritual joy and strength, and the means of producing inner purity
and sincerity among Muslims. It was the same music of the Qur'an which,
in a very short period of time, converted the barbarous tribes of the Arabian
peninsula, into a steadfast nation of committed believers, who could grapple
with the greatest powers of the age and overthrow them. 

The Muslims did not merely view the Qur'an as a book of moral advice
and instruction alone, but also, as a spiritual and ideological tonic.
They recited the Qur'an with devotion of heart during their intimate nightly
supplications, and during the day, they derived from it the strength to
attack the unbelievers like roaring lions. The Qur'an had just such an
expectation of those who had found their faith. Addressing the Prophet,
it says: 

Obey not the unbelievers, but struggle against them with
it [the Qur'an] striving mightily. (25:52) 

The Qur'an advises the Prophet (S) not to pay heed to the words of the
infidels and to stand firmly against them equipped with the weapon of the
Qur'an. It assures him that the ultimate victory shall be his. The life
of the Prophet (S) itself is a positive proof of this assurance. He stood
all alone against enemies without any support except the Qur'an, and the
same Qur'an meant everything to him. It produced warriors for him, furnished
arms and forces, until, ultimately, the enemies were totally subdued. The
Qur'an drew towards him individuals from the enemy's camp, and caused them
to submit before the Messenger of God. In this way the Divine pledge was
fulfilled. 

When the Qur'an calls its language "the language of the heart," it means
the heart which it seeks to purify, enlighten and stimulate. This language
is other than the language of music that occasionally arouses sensual feelings.
It is also different from the language of martial music that arouses the
spirit of heroism in the hearts of soldiers and strengthens and enhances
their enthusiasm. Rather, it is the language which converted the Arab Bedouins
into inspired mujahidin, for whom it was said: 

They carried their visions on their swords. 

Those people carried their vision, their ideology, their religion and spiritual
discoveries on their swords, and used them in the defence of those ideals
and ideas. The notions of private and personal interest were alien to them.
Though they were not innocent and infallible, and they did commit mistakes,
yet they were those who rightly fitted the description: 

Standing in prayer during nights, 

fasting during daytime. 

Every moment of day and night, they were in contact with the depths of
Being. Their nights were passed in worship, and days in jihad. 

It is on account of this characteristic, that the Qur'an is a book of
the heart and the soul. Its appeal overwhelms the soul and brings tears
flowing from the eyes and makes the heart tremble. It stresses this point
and considers it true even of the "People of the Book": 

Those to whom We gave the Book before this believe in it,
and, when it is recited to them, they say, 'We believe in it; surely it
is the Truth from our Lord; even before it we were of those who surrender.
(28:52-53) 

It describes a group of people who undergo a state of veneration and awe
when the Qur'an is recited before them. They affirm faith in all the contents
of the Book, declare everything in it to be nothing but truth and their
veneration of it continues to increase. In another verse, the Qur'an affirms
that among the Ahl al-Kitab (The People of the Book), the Christians are
closer to the Muslims than the idolaters and Jews. Then a group of Christians
who believed and became Muslims on hearing the Qur'an are described in
these words: 

And when they hear what has been sent down to the Messenger,
thou seest their eyes overflow with tears, because of the truth they recognize.
They say, "Our Lord we believe; so do Thou write us down among the witnesses."
(5:83) 

In another place, while describing the believers, the Qur'an says: 

God has sent down the fairest discourse as a book, consimilar
in its oft repeated parts, whereat shiver the skins of those who fear their
Lord; then their skins and their hearts soften to the remembrance of God
... (39:23) 

In these, as well as in many other verses (such as 19:58, 61:1, etc.),
the Qur'an tells us that it is not merely a book of knowledge and analysis;
but at the same time that it makes use of logical arguments that appeal
to the intellect, it also speaks to the finer sensibilities of the human
soul. 

The Qur'an's Addressees:

Another point that has to be inferred from the Qur'anic text during its
analytical study, is to determine the identity of those who are addressed
by it. There are certain expressions like "guidance for the God fearing,"
"guidance and good tiding for the believers," "to admonish and caution
him who is alive," which often recur in the Qur'an. Here the question may
arise: Of what need is guidance for those who are already guided, the pious
and the righteous? Moreover, we see that the Qur'an describes itself in
these words: 

It is but a reminder unto all beings, and you shall surely
know its tiding, after a while. (38:87-88) 

Then, is this book meant for all the people of the world, or is it for
the believers alone? In another verse addressing the Prophet, God the Most
Exalted, says: 

We have not sent thee, save as a mercy unto all beings.
(21:107) 

A more detailed explanation of this matter would be undertaken during the
course of later discussion regarding the historical aspect of the Qur'an.
Here it is just sufficient to mention that the Qur'an is addressed to all
the people of the world. It does not single out any particular nation or
group. Everyone who accepts the invitation of the Qur'an is assured of
spiritual salvation. However, the verses which mention the Qur'an as the
book of guidance for the believers and the God-fearing (mu'minun and muttaqun),
clearly specify the kind of people who will be attracted towards it and
others who will turn away from it. The Qur'an never names any particular
nation or tribe as being its devotees. It does not take sides with a specially
chosen people. Unlike other religions, the Qur'an never associates itself
with the interests of any specific class. It does not say, for example,
that it has come to safeguard the interests of the workers or the peasants.
The Qur'an repeatedly emphasizes the point that its purpose is to establish
justice. Speaking about the prophets, it says: 

And We sent down with them the Book and the Balance so that
men might uphold justice ... (57:25) 

The Qur'an advocates justice for all mankind, not merely for this or that
class, tribe or nation. It does not, for example, like Nazism and other
such cults, stir up the passions of prejudice to attract people. Similarly,
it does not, like certain schools of thought like Marxism, base its appeal
upon the human weakness of interest-seeking and enslave-ment to material
motivations to incite people; because the Qur'an believes in the essential
primariness of the rational consciousness of man and his intrinsic conscience.
It believes that it is on the basis of its moral potentialities and its
truth-conscious human nature that mankind is placed firmly on the path
of progress and evolution. This is the reason why its message is not limited
to the working or farming class or exclusively to the oppressed and deprived.
The Qur'an addresses both the oppressors as well as the oppressed, and
calls them to follow the right path. Prophet Moses (A) delivers the message
of God to both Bani Israel and Pharaoh, and asks them to believe in the
Lord and to move in His path. Prophet Muhammad (S) extends his invitation
both to the chieftains of Quraysh and to ordinary persons like Abu Dharr
and 'Ammar. The Qur'an cites numerous examples of an individual's revolt
against his own self and his voluntary return from the path of deviation
to the straight one. But, at the same time, the Qur'an is aware of the
point that the restoration and repentance of those immersed in a life of
luxury and opulence is comparatively more difficult than that of those
familiar with the hardships of life: the oppressed and the deprived, who
are, as a matter of fact, naturally more inclined towards justice; whereas
the rich and wealthy, at the very first step, have to forgo their personal
and class interests and abandon their wishes and aspirations. 

The Qur'an declares that its followers are those who have a clear and
pure conscience. They are drawn to it solely by the love of justice and
truth, which is ingrained in the nature of all human beings ---not under
the urge for material interests and worldly desires and allurements. 

Conception of Reason in the Qur'an

Heretofore we have discussed briefly the diction of the Qur'an, and said
that, for the purpose of communicating its message, the Qur'an makes use
of two types of languages, namely, the language of rational argument and
the language of feeling. Each of these languages has a specific appeal.
The first type addresses and appeals to the intellect or reason, while
the second one is meant to appeal to the heart. Now we shall examine the
point of view of the Qur'an regarding reason ('aql). 

It is to be seen whether or not the Qur'an acknowledges the "authority"
(hajjah) of reason --as the scholars of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)
and usul put it. This means whether or not we should respect the
judge-ments of reason and act according to them if they happen to be correct
and rightly deduced by it. Moreover, if one acts according to the dictates
of reason and occasionally falls into error, will God exonerate him for
it, or whether He will punish him on account of that error? And, if one
fails to act according to the ruling of reason, does he deserve punishment? 

Evidence in Favour of the Authority of Reason

The issue of the authority of reason in Islam is certain. Since the earliest
times until the present, none amongst the Islamic scholars --except for
a very small number-- has ever negated the authority of reason; they have
counted it as one of the four sources of Islamic fiqh. 

1. The Qur'an's Emphasis on Rationalism

Since our discussion is about the Qur'an, I think it necessary to produce
arguments concerning the authority of reason from the Qur'an itself. The
Qur'an, in various ways, confirms the authority of reason. About sixty
to seventy verses can be cited --and that, too, for just one of the various
ways, as mentioned-- in which the Qur'an indicates that such and such a
matter has been mentioned for reason to reflect on. In one instance, the
Qur'an refers to this issue in a striking statement: 

Surely the worst of beasts in God's sight are those that
are deaf and dumb and do not reason. (8:22) 

Of course, it is obvious that the Qur'an does not mean the physically deaf
and dumb, but those who do not want to listen to truth, or those who, when
they hear, do not wish to admit it with their tongues. In the view of the
Qur'an, the ears which are unable to listen to truth and which are only
used for listening to absurd and nonsensical things, are deaf. The tongue
which is merely used to utter nonsense, is dumb. The people who do not
reason, are those who do not make use of their intellect and their faculty
of thought. Such are not fit to be called human beings. The Qur'an includes
them among the beasts. In another verse, while bringing up a subject related
to Divine Unity (al-tawhid), the Qur'an refers to the issue of unity of
Divine Acts, and says: 

It is not for any soul to believe, save by the leave of
God... (10:100) 

After stating this profound issue --a problem which is not easily comprehensible
to every human mind-- the Qur'an continues the verse like this: 

And He lays abomination upon those who do not reason. (10:100) 

In these two verses, which I quote here for the sake of example, the Qur'an,
in the terms of logic, invites us to ratiocination. There are many other
verses in the Qur'an which, on the basis of consequential signification,
can be said to accept the authority of reason. In other words, the Qur'an
makes statements which cannot be accepted without accepting the authority
of reason. For instance, an opponent is asked to forward rational argument
in favour of his position: 

Say: Bring your proof if you are truthful. (2:111) 

This can only be inferred to mean the Qur'an's ratification of the authority
of reason. In another place it uses syllogistic argument to prove the existence
of the Necessary Being (wajib al-wujud): 

Were there gods in them [earth and heaven] other than God,
they would surely disintegrate ... (21:22) 

In these verses the Qur'an has framed a conditional proposition, which
exempts or excludes the antecedent premise for arriving at a conclusion
which is consequent upon it. Thus the Qur'an aims at emphasizing the role
of reason and refutes the view of some of the religions that faith is alien
to, or, is incompatible with reason, and that to embrace faith one has
to suspend his rational faculty and concentrate upon heart alone, so that
it may absorb the Divine light and become illuminated by it. This view
is totally negated and refuted by the Qur'an. 

2. References to the Law of Causality

The other argument that supports the view that the Qur'an approves of the
ultimate authority of reason, is that it defines various problems in terms
of cause-and-effect relationship. The cause-and-effect relation-ship, or
the law of causation, is the foundation of rational thinking. This law
is honoured by the Qur'an and is also employed by it. The Qur'an speaks
on behalf of God, the Almighty, the Creator of the system of cause and
effect. Despite the fact that His Word transcends the limitations of causality,
the Qur'an is not oblivious of pointing out to the system of causality
operating in the universe; it views all phenomena and events as being subservient
to this system. The following verse supports this view: 

God changes not what is in a people, until they change what
is in themselves ... (13:11)

The Qur'an intends to say that, although all destinies depend on the Will
of God, He never imposes upon human beings such fate as is outside and
alien to their determination, will and action. The destinies of societies
also change according to their intrinsic system of functioning. God does
not extravagantly alter the destiny of a nation without any specific reason,
unless they themselves bring about a major change in their system of social
and moral values and their manner of performing their individual duties. 

The Qur'an urges Muslims to study the conditions and circumstances of
societies of the past and to take lesson from their history. It is evident
that if the destinies of races and nations were random, or dependent upon
accidents, or were prescribed from above, the advice to study and draw
a lesson would not have any sense. By laying emphasis on it, the Qur'an
intends to remind us that a uniform system of laws governs the destinies
of all the nations of the world. It also reminds us that if the conditions
of a society in which we live, are similar to the conditions prevalent
in a society of the past, the same fate awaits us too. Elsewhere, the Qur'an
says: 

How many a city We have destroyed in its evildoing, and
now it is fallen down upon its turrets. How many a ruined well, a tall
palace. What, have they not journeyed in the land so that they have hearts
to understand with, or ear to hear with ... ? (22:45-46) 

From this statement, we can infer that the affirmation of the law of causality
and the approval of the cause-and-effect relationship, imply the acceptance
of authority of reason. 

3. Rational Basis of Divine Commands

Another argument which proves that the Qur'an believes in the ultimate
authority of reason, is that the Qur'an always explains the rationale behind
its commands, laws and precepts. The scholars of usul al-din (the principles
of the Faith) maintain that the harms and benefits caused by human deeds
are among the reasons behind laws and commands. For example, while at one
place the Qur'an ordains the performance of prayers, in another place it
explains the philosophy of prayer: 

Indeed prayer forbids indecency and dishonour ... (29:45) 

It mentions the spiritual effects of prayer, and states how the prayer
can edify man. It explains that it is on account of this exaltation that
man can dissociate himself from indecencies. Elsewhere, after laying down
rules for observing the fast, the Qur'an explains the rationale for its
command: 

Prescribed for you is the Fast, even as it was prescribed
for those that were before you --haply you will be God-fearing. (2:183) 

Similarly, with respect to other commandments like those regarding zakat
(alms) and jihad, the Qur'an clarifies their necessity for individual,
as well as for society. In this way, the Qur'an, not withstanding the transcendental
nature of Divine commandments, clarifies fully their worldly and terrestrial
relevance, and asks men to cogitate upon their rationale until their meaning
becomes explicit, so that it may not be imagined that these laws are based
on a series of occult notions beyond the power of human comprehension. 

4. Combating Deviations of Reason

Another evidence in favour of the Qur'an's affirmation of the authority
of reason --which is more conclusive than that mentioned above-- is the
battle it launched against all those agents which obstruct the proper functioning
of reason. For clarification of this point, we are forced to mention certain
things in the way of an introduction. 

The human mind can, in many cases, fall into error. This fact is acknowledged
by all of us. However, this danger is not limited to the intellect alone,
but can equally befall the senses, and feelings as well. Just for the sense
of vision, scores of visual errors and optical illusions have been pointed
out. In the case of reason, too, there are times when people frame an argument
and rationale and draw an inference on its basis, but later on they realize
that the basis of their conclusion was erroneous. Here the question arises,
whether the faculty of reason should be suspended on account of its occasional
failures, or whether we should employ other means for discovering the errors
of the intellect and seek to avoid such errors. In answering this question,
the Sophists said that reason should not be relied upon, and that, basically,
argumentation and reasoning is an absurd practice. Other philosophers have
given a fitting reply to the Sophists, and said that though the senses
can also err like reason, but no one has ever recommended their suspension.
Since it was not possible to discard reason, the philosophers resolved
to find ways of making reason secure from error. During their efforts in
this regard, they discovered that all arguments consist of two parts, namely,
matter and form. Like a building which has various ingredients in its construction,
like, lime, cement, steel, etc. (matter), to acquire a specific structure
(form). In order to attain the permanence and perfection of its construction,
it is essential to procure proper material as well as to draw a perfect
and faultless plan. For the correctness and accuracy of an argument, too,
it is essential that its content and form be both free of error and defect.
For judging the validity of the form of any argument, the Aristotelian
or formal logic came into existence. The function of formal logic is to
determine the accuracy or inaccuracy of the form of an argument, and help
the mind to avoid errors in the process of reasoning. 

But the major problem that remains is that solely formal logic is inadequate
for this purpose, because it cannot alone guarantee the validity of an
argument. It can give assurance about one aspect alone. To obtain the perfection
of the material aspect, the use of material logic is also essential, that
is, we need certain criteria for controlling the quality of the rational
material. 

Thinkers like Bacon and Descartes strove hard to evolve some kind of
material logic similar to the formal logic of Aristotle, which was devised
for formal reasoning. They did obtain certain criteria in this regard,
though they are not as universal as those of Aristotelian logic, but are,
to a limited extent, helpful in preventing the mind from committing errors
in reasoning. Some may be surprised to know that the Qur'an has presented
such principles for the prevention of any lapses in the process of reasoning,
which surpass in merit and precedence the efforts of philosophers like
Descartes and others. 

The Qur'anic Viewpoint

Regarding the Sources of Error

Among various sources of error mentioned by the Qur'an, one is that of
taking conjecture and hypothesis for certainty and conviction. If a person
were to adhere to the principle of putting conviction only in certainties
and of not confusing between conjectures and certainties, he would not
fall into error. The Qur'an lays great emphasis on this problem, and has
clearly stated in one place that one of the biggest errors of the human
mind is pursuit of conjectures and hypotheses. In another verse, which
is addressed to the Prophet (S), the Qur'an says: 

If thou obeyest the most part of those on earth, they will
lead thee astray from the path of God: they follow only surmise, merely
conjecturing. (6:116) 

In another verse, the Qur'an says: 

And pursue not that thou has no knowledge of ... (17:36) 

This is the word of caution to mankind extended by the Qur'an, for the
first time in the history of human ideas, warning mankind against this
kind of error. 

The second source of error in the reasoning process, which is particularly
relevant in social issues, is imitation. Most people are such that they
accept whatever beliefs that are current in their society. They adopt certain
beliefs merely for the reason that they were followed by their preceding
generation. The Qur'an bids people to carefully scrutinize all ideas and
judge them by the criteria of reason --neither to follow blindly the conventional
beliefs and traditions of their ancestors, nor to reject them totally without
any rational justification. It reminds us that there are many false doctrines
that were introduced in the past, but were accepted by the people, and
there are also certain truths that were presented in the distant past,
but people resisted them on account of their ignorance. In accepting any
ideas or principles, men are advised to make use of their intellects and
rational faculties, and not to indulge in blind imitation. Very often,
the Qur'an puts imitation of ancestors in direct opposition to reason and
intellect: 

And when it is said to them: 'Follow what God has sent down',
they say, 'No; but we will follow such things as we found our fathers doing.'
What? Even if their fathers had no understanding of anything, and if they
were not guided ? (2:170)

The Qur'an constantly reiterates the view that the idea of antiquity of
an idea is neither the evidence of its falsity, nor is it a testimony of
its truthfulness. Antiquity affects material objects; but the eternal truths
of existence never become old and outmoded. Truths like: 

God changes not what is in a people, until they change what
is in themselves ... (13:11) 

are true for ever and ever. The Qur'an asks us to face issues with the
weapon of reason and intellect. One should neither forsake a belief for
fear of becoming the target of others' ridicule and banter, nor should
he accept a belief just because it is upheld by some important and well-
known persons. We should ourselves study and investigate the roots of all
matters and draw our own conclusions. 

A Third effective source of error pointed out by the Qur'an is 

Selfish motives tarnish virtue and merit,  

A cascade of curtains gallops from the heart towards vision. 

Unless one maintains objectivity and neutrality in every matter, he is
unlikely to think correctly. Reason can function properly only in an atmosphere
that is free of selfish desires and motives. A well-known anecdote of al-Allamah
al-Hilli, can illustrate this point. 

A problem of fiqh was put before al-Allamah al-Hilli: If an animal
falls inside a well, and the carcass cannot be removed; what should be
done with the well? Incidentally, during the same days, an animal happened
to fall into the well in his own house, and it became inevitable for him
to deduce an injunction to solve his own problem, too There were two possible
ways to solve the issue: Firstly, the well should be totally closed, not
to be used again; secondly, a fixed quantity of water should be emptied
from the well and the rest of well's water would be clean and usable. The
'Allamah realized that he could not give a completely impartial verdict
about the problem without interference from his own personal interest.
Accordingly, he ordered his own well be closed. Then, with an easy mind,
free of the pressure of selfish motives. he turned to deducing the details
of verdict in the second case. 

The Qur'an contains a large number of warnings regarding the evil of
submission to personal desires. The following is just one instance of it: 

They follow nothing except conjecture, and what the self
desires ... (53:25)

Qur'anic Outlook Regarding the "Heart"

Perhaps I need not explain here that in the language of literature and
mysticism the term heart does not mean the organ situated in the left side
of the human body, which pumps blood into the blood vessels. What is implied
is the sublime and distinguishing faculty of the human soul, as can be
readily understood from the following examples from the Qur'an and verses
of Sa'di: 

Surely in that there is a reminder to him who has a heart
... (50:37) 

My heart was alarmed 

[on sensing the coming danger],  

While I, a thoughtless dervish,  

Do not know what 

this wandering prey has come across. 

These two examples make it obvious that the connoted meaning of the heart
is quite different from the bodily organ. Elsewhere, the Qur'an refers
to the ailments of the heart: 

In their hearts is a sickness, and God has increased that
sickness ... (2:10) 

To cure this sickness is beyond the powers of any man of medicine, even
the heart specialist; only the doctors of the spirit can diagnose such
diseases and suggest proper remedies. 

Definition of the Heart

What is the definition of this heart then? An answer to this question is
to be sought in the reality of human existence. Every human being, although
he is a single individual, possesses myriads of existential dimensions.
The human "self" encompasses myriads of thoughts, desires, fears, hopes
and inclinations. Like the ocean which links all rivers with one another,
all these components of the human personality are related to the same center,
which unites them with one another. The "self" itself is the deep and unfathomable
ocean, whose depths no one can claim to have charted out and to have discovered
all its mysteries. Philosophers mystics, and psychologists --each of them
has tried in his own specific way to explore its depths, and has succeeded
only to a certain degree in discovering its secrets. Perhaps the mystics,
a bit more than others, have been successful in this regard. What the Qur'an
refers to as the heart, is the reality of that ocean, which includes all
that we name as the manifestations of the soul, to which all its rivers
and tributaries are connected. Even reason is one of the various rivers
associated with this sea. 

In places where the Qur'an speaks of revelation, it does not make any
mention of reason; rather it is merely concerned with the heart of the
Prophet (S). This does not mean an absence of rational and demonstrative
reception of the Holy Qur'an on the part of the Prophet, but it was his
heart which, in a state that we cannot imagine, obtained the direct experience
and awareness of those transcendental realities. The verses of Suurat al-Najm
and Suurat al-Takwir describe the state of this union to some extent: 

Nor speaks he out of caprice. This is naught but a revelation
revealed taught him by one terrible in power, very strong; he stood poised,
being on the higher horizon, then drew near and approached nearer, two
bow's length away, or nearer, then revealed to His servant that He revealed.
His heart lies not of what he saw. (53:3-11) 

The Qur'an mentions all these things to show that these matters are basically
beyond the range of rational understanding. 

Truly this is the word of a noble messenger having power,
of honoured place with the Lord of the Throne, obeyed, moreover trusty.
Your companion is not possessed; he truly saw him on the clear horizon;
he is not niggardly of the Unseen. (81:19-23) 

Muhammad Iqbal offers a fine interpretation of this subject. He says that
the prophet is one who, at first, imbibes the entire truth, and later on,
in order to enrich the world and to alter the course of history, communicates
everything that has reached him by the way of Revelation. 

Wherever the Qur'an speaks of the revelation and the heart, al- though
its import transcends the limits of reason and thought, its speech is not
irrational or anti-rational. It expounds a vision which surpasses human
reason and sensibility, and enters a domain which is, basically, beyond
reason and intellect. 

Characteristics of the Heart

The Qur'an regards the heart, also, as an instrument of understanding.
In fact, the greater part of the Qur'anic message is addressed to the human
heart --a message which is audible to the ears of the heart alone, and
is inscrutable to other receptive faculties. Accordingly, it attaches great
importance to the care, protection, and development of this instrument.
In the Qur'an, we recurrently come across such notions as purification
of the self, purity and enlightenment of the heart, and purification of
the heart: 

Prosperous is he who purifies it [the self]. (91:9) 

No indeed; but that they were earning has overwhelmed their
hearts. (83:14) 

And about the salvation and enlightening of the heart, the Qur'an says: 

If you fear God, He will assign you [the capacity of] distinguishing
...(8:29)  

But those who struggle in Our [cause], surely We shall guide them
in Our ways... (29:69) 

Contrarily, the Qur'an recurrently reminds that indecencies infect and
darken the human soul, and deprive the human heart of sublime inclinations
and virtuous tendencies. At one place, speaking on behalf of the believers,
it says: 

Our Lord, make not our hearts to swerve after Thou hast
guided us ... (3:8) 

Describing the qualities of the evildoers, the Qur'an says: 

No indeed; but that they were earning has overwhelmed their
hearts. (83:14) 

The darkness of sin and injustice has engulfed their hearts: 

When they swerved, God caused their hearts to swerve ...
(61:5) 

About the sealing and hardening of the hearts, it says: 

God has set a seal on their hearts and on their hearing,
and on their eyes is a covering ... (2:7) 

And also: 

We lay veils upon their hearts lest they understand it ...
(6:25) So does God seal the hearts of the unbelievers. (7:101) So that
their hearts have become hard, and many of them are ungodly. (57:16) 

All these verses point to the fact that the Qur'an recommends a sublime,
spiritual atmosphere for mankind, and deems it necessary for every individual
to strive to keep it clean and unpolluted. In addition, since an unsound
social atmosphere renders fruitless the efforts of most individuals to
keep pure and wholesome, the Qur'an recommends that the people should employ
all their endeavour in the direction of purification of their social atmosphere.
The Qur'an unequivocally propounds the view that the continued existence
of all those sublime values, beliefs and ideas, and continued social receptivity
to all its moral advice and counsels, depend upon individual and collective
struggle to eradicate all types of meanness, sensuality, and lewdness. 

Human history itself is a witness to the fact that whenever despotic
regimes have wanted to bring other societies under their autocratic rule,
they have tried to corrupt their social spirit and pollute their social
atmosphere. They provided enormous facilities for the people to indulge
in licentiousness, and gave them every kind of freedom in this regard.
A heart-rending account of this unholy treatment meted out to Muslims of
Spain --a region which is regarded to have played an effective role in
initiating the Renaissance, and had the most advanced culture in Europe--
throws enough light on this phenomenon. In order to divest Spain out of
Muslims' hands, the Christians resorted to defilement of the morals of
Muslim youth, by providing ample facilities for their debaucheries. They
even went to the extent of alluring and enticing the army generals and
government officials in topmost ranks. They thus succeeded in diverting
Muslims from the path of determination and purpose, and in divesting them
of their power, their strength of faith, and purity of soul, converting
them into profligate weaklings addicted to drinking and licentiousness.
It is obvious that it is not very difficult to subdue such individuals.
Christians took revenge on nearly eight hundred years of Muslim rule in
such a way that history is ashamed at recounting those deeds. The same
Christians who, according to the teachings of Jesus Christ ("offer your
left cheek if your right cheek is slapped"), were supposed to behave in
a different way, surpassed the bloodthirsty tradition of Genghiz Khan by
the massacre of Muslims in Spain. Nevertheless, the ruin that Muslims suffered
was the result of their own spiritual degeneration and decay; it was their
punishment for abandoning the Qur'anic commands. 

In our times, also, wherever the evil of colonialism exists, the same
practices are vigorously adopted --a danger against which the Qur'an so
emphatically warns us. The colonialists try to corrupt the hearts; when
the heart is thus debilitated, reason, too, is not only lost and fails
to function properly, but is itself turned into a terrible bondage. The
colonialists and the exploitive powers are not afraid of establishing schools
and universities: they even advocate popular education; but, on the other
hand, they take good care to make arrangements to corrupt and destroy the
spirit of students, and of the teachers as well. They are fully aware of
the fact that an unhealthy mind and a sickly soul cannot make any decisive
move, and readily yield to every type of exploitation and degradation. 

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And help one another to piety and God-fearing, do not help
each other to sin and enmity... (5:2) 

Men are, firstly, enjoined to pursue piety and are warned against sinning;
secondly, they are asked to perform righteous deeds collectively, not individually. 

Here I shall mention two or three sayings of the Prophet (S) and the
Imams (A) in order to elucidate this point. There is a tradition that once
a person came in the presence of the Prophet (S) and told him that he wished
to ask certain questions. The Prophet asked him whether he wanted to listen
to the answers, or if he wished to ask questions first. He asked the Prophet
(S) to give the answers. The Prophet (S) told him that his question was
concerned with the meaning of virtue and goodness. The man affirmed that
he intended to ask exactly the same question. The Prophet gently knocked
the man's chest with his three fingers, saying: "Put this question to your
own heart;" then he added: "This heart is so made that it is harmonious
with virtue; it is put at ease by virtue and piety, but disturbed by vice
and villainy. In the same way, as presence of an alien disharmonious object
in the human body causes uneasiness and discomfort, and disturbs its order,
the human soul is thrown off its balance and ease on account of faulty
behaviour." What is commonly called the pain and torment of the conscience,
is the same state of inconformity and alienation of the soul: 

[For an honest insight] ask your own heart, though the masters
may have their own (different) opinion. 

The Prophet (S) points out the fact that if a person endeavours to seek
reality and truth with an open and impartial mind, his heart can never
deceive him in this regard; it will always guide him towards the straight
path. Basically, as long as man is in search of truth and reality, and
treads the path of truth, whatever he encounters in this course is nothing
but truth. This is, of course, a very delicate point which is often misunderstood.
When someone falls into misguidance and loses his path, it is because he
was following a certain direction which was not determined by sincere search
of truth. Answering someone who had asked the Prophet, "What is virtue?,"
he said, "If you really want to know what is virtue, then understand that
when your heart is serene and your conscience at rest, whatever has caused
them to be such, is virtue. But when you are attracted towards something,
and that does not bring peace and serenity to your heart, then you should
know that it is vice and sin." 

Elsewhere, when the Prophet (S) was asked about the meaning of faith
(iman), he said, "When one performs an ugly deed, and is overwhelmed with
the feeling of reproach and displeasure, and when one performs virtuous
deeds and feels happy and joyous, it means that he is endowed with faith." 

It has been quoted from Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (A) that when a believer
liberates himself from all worldly bondages, he feels the delight of nearness
to God within his heart; in this state, the whole world appears to him
very small and insignificant; he strives with all power to liberate himself
from the bondages of the material world. This is a reality attested by
the lives of the men of God. 

In the biographies of the Prophet (S), it is written that once after
his morning prayers the Prophet (S) went to visit the Ashab al-Suffah.
They were a group of poor men who did not possess any worldly belongings,
and used to live by the side of Prophet's Mosque in al-Madinah. When the
Prophet (S) happened to see one of them, Harith ibn Zayd, who looked rather
pale and emaciated, his eyes sunk deep inside his skull, he inquired, "How
are you." He answered, "I have woken up a man of certain faith." The Prophet
asked him what proved his claim. He answered, "I am bereft of sleep at
nights and engage in fasting during the days." The Prophet told him that
this was insufficient. "Tell me more about it," he said. Harith said, "O
Messenger of God, my condition is such that I can clearly see and hear
the people of heaven and those of hell. If you permit me, I will inform
you about the secret thoughts and inner states of every one of your companions."
The Prophet bade him hold his tongue, and say no more; but asked him, "What
is your desire?" He said, "To fight in the way of God." 

According to the Qur'an, furbishing of the human heart exalts a human
being to such a point that, in the words of Ali (A), even if the veils
that conceal the Unseen be removed from in front of him, there is nothing
that can enhance his faith. The teachings of the Qur'an are meant to educate
man to become a being equipped with the power of knowledge and reason on
the one hand, and possessed of a pure heart and sound feeling on the other.
They aim to train a human being who is able to employ his reason and heart
in the most proper and exalted fashion. The Imams (S) and their true pupils
were examples of such human beings.